Abbott, P. Abercrombie, N. London: Penguin. This vulnerability, something humans share amid the diversity of cultural beliefs and values that mark their differences, provides solid ground on which to construct a framework of human rights. Xreferplus, a subscription-based online reference service, makes several well-regarded sociology dictionaries available, among them The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology and The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology. Several free dictionaries For such critics, sociology is socialism, masquerading as a social science.
There is some weight to this charge, since, for example, Saint-Simon in the nineteenth century can be regarded as the founder of both sociology and socialism.
The paradox is, however, that sociology is also regarded, particularly by its left-wing critics, as a conservative discipline which sought to revive social harmony in a world being torn apart by revolution, industrialization and religious decline.
It is true that in the s Marxism became an influential perspective in the social sciences generally, although it never achieved anything like a monopoly in the sociology curriculum. Two points can be made about this influence. First, Marxist sociology became one of the principal vehicles for sustained criticism of orthodox Marxism.
For many Marxist sociologists, the scientific claims of Marxism never survived this critical inspection. Secondly, there are strong indications in the i98os, partly as a result of internal criticism within sociology, that the neo-Marxist paradigm has become a post-Marxist paradigm, with many sociologists showing a renewed interest in Weberian sociology, critical theory, hermeneutics and so forth.
Sociology is a diverse, open and expanding subject, without any permanent commitment to any single perspective, and sociologists adhere to the conventions and procedures which in all disciplines guarantee, or at least promote, objectivity. Sociological propositions are open to public scrutiny, evaluation and refutation. Sociological evidence is collected by observation, experiment and surveys which are designed to ensure, as far as possible, reliability and replication.
Unlike many public institutions, sociology as a professional disciplineis open to both internal and external inquiry. This dictionary makes no pretence that sociology is a unified approach to social phenomena.
Indeed, we have made every effort to consider rival schools, controversial issues, contradictory definitionsand unresolved problems. Where terms are confused and Preface imprecise, we have said so.
One reason for the existence of widespreadcontroversy in sociology is the fact that different national schools of sociology in France and Germany, for example have developed in very different directions. Some forms of sociology are very close to history and philosophy, while others have sought to be quantitative and experimental, taking experimental psychology and economics as models of social science.
There is an important division between American sociology, which from its inception has regarded sociology as an exact science that produces 'hard' data and contributes to the formation of public policy, and European sociology,which has adhered more closely to its roots in certain philosophicaltraditions, stemming for example from Hegel, Marx and, more recently, Heidegger.
European sociologists are more familiar with the notion that to be useful sociology has to be critical. Encompassingthis diversity within a single dictionary is difficult, but our aim has been to display the complexity of sociology rather than impose an arbitrary unity on it - a unity which in any case would be premature. Despite this lack of unity, sociology as both science and calling remains the main perspective on the central problems of living in an industrial and secular civilization.
July i! Her work is integrated by an interest in how groups respond to risk and uncertainty, and her intellectual development was significantly influenced by E. Evans-Pritchard's work on witchcraft q. For example, in Purity and Danger she showed how notions about pollution help to establish social order against uncertainty and danger, and how the human body functions as a metaphor of social stability. The group variable refers - Dual Economy to the strength of collective attachment to social units; the grid refers to social constraints on individuals which result from ascribed status q.
She has also been critical of utilitarian theories of consumption Douglas and Isherwood, This approach within symbolic interactionism q. Goffman q. The basic idea is that in interaction people put on a 'show' for each other, stage-managing the impressions that others receive. Social roles are thus analogous to those in a theatre. Thus people project images of themselves, usually in ways that best serve their own ends, because such information helps to define the situation and create appropriate expectations.
See: Sociodrama. Dual Career Families. Families in which both husband and wife have careers q. Dual Consciousness. People are said to manifest a dual consciousnesswhen they hold two apparently inconsistent sets of beliefs at the same time. The term is most commonly applied to members of the working class in contemporary European societies, who have sets of beliefs formed by the dominant culture through the educationalsystem as well as different sets of beliefs generated by the experience of work and working-class life.
The former type of belief is typically revealed in questionnaire research which tends to ask abstract questions, while the latter shows most clearly in practical activities. For example, it has been shown that many people will say, in response to social survey interviewers, that they disapprove of unofficial strikes, while participating in such strikes at their own workplace.
Dual Economy. This term was originally associated with J. Boeke's analysis in the early twentieth century of economic growth in underdeveloped nations. European-owned plantations in Java, run along rational and efficient capitalist lines, coexisted with an indigenous agrarian economy where peasants made no effort to Dual Labour Markets emulate the European model.
This was a dual economy of advanced and backward sectors which remained distinct. Europeans were dominated by economic needs whereas the Javanese peasants had social needs. The economic laws valid for capitalist societies were not valid for dual economies where capitalism coexisted with a peasant economy embodying pre-capitalist social values and relationships. His theory is not entirely accepted, but his description of economies segmented into advanced and backward sectors continues to inform the study of developing societies.
More recently the idea of dualism has been applied within advancedcapitalist economies, notably Japan and the United States. The structure of both economies is thought to embrace a 'core' sector of corporations that are large, prosperous and stable, and have sufficient economic power to manipulate their environments in order to reduce the disruptive effects of competition. There are also 'peripheries' of smaller, less prosperous and less stable firms.
Where the two sectors relate, the relationship is asymmetrical because some firms on the periphery may depend on large corporationsfor business, whereas the latter do not depend on the former. Averitt Dual Labour Markets. Economists now believe that national labour markets comprise interrelated yet non-competing submarkets.
Dual labour market models suggest that there are primary and secondary markets. Primary markets are composed of jobs which offer high wages, career structures albeit with low ceilings for manual employees , the chance to acquire skills on the job, and stable and secure employment. Internal labour markets are often held to be characteristic of primary employment. In these, firms recruit from outside for certain fairly low positions and then fill higher-level vacancies by the promotion of existing employees.
Secondary labour market jobs provide low wages, few possibilities for advancement or the acquisition of skills, and unstable, insecure employment. The overlap is not complete because 'core' firms may also offer secondary jobs. In the United States, where the dual labour market is highly developed and well documented, certain groups of workers tend to get jobs in one market rather than another: ethnic minorities and women are more likely to be selected for secondary jobs; white males for primary ones.
Institutional economists such as P. Doeringer and M. Piore attribute duality mainly to technological factors: advanced technology is believed to require firm-specific skills and stable labour forces, which in turn lead firms to offer training and to commit workers to their jobs by means of high pay, a career structure and good benefits. Because technological demands are not constant for all jobs within a firm, companies frequently work with a mix of primary and secondary markets.
Similarly, crlck people were allocated to the various SEGs on the basis of their occupation and employment status. By contrast, DURKHUM exhibited a far more confident view of the achievements of sociology, claiming that it had shown how certain moral and legal institutions and religious beliefs were the same in a wide variety of societies, and that this uniformity was the best proof that the soclal realm was subject to universal laws. Sociology is sometimes seen as the intellectuaJ and often conservative response to the spedfic social problems which were produced by the French Revolution and the translUon from a traditional to an industrial society, 1t attempted to measure and analyse urban poverty, political instability, mortality rates, disease, crime, divorce, suidde, etc.
The phil. There have been many investigations of the ownership and control of newspapers and television companies and of the sociology of knowledge This is a branch of sociology often mentioned but only background1 education and basic assumptions of journalists in these media. In much sociology of knowledge of audiences as active, selecting and often rejecting media opinions.
Mor-e recent this relation is understood causally; social base produces particular kinds of knowM work suggests some compromise betwe-en these two. Not a great deal of emphical work has been done in the sodology of knowledge itself, but there has been considerable activity in some of its branches, particularly in the sociologies of literature and sdence.
The former typically asks how social su: ALSO: technologies; semiotics. In the latter, these macro-sociological questions are left aside in favour, for example, of investigations of how scientists decide what is to count as knowledge.
Weber was in terms of legal theory a positivist. He believed that the law could be studied by the methods of the social sciences, and that sociologists could ignore its normativetontents. For Weber, law is command, typically the command of a state. For Weber, the question is not whether a law is just but whether it was issued by the corredia institutions and personnel.
For Weber, the question is not whether a law is just but whether it was issued by the corre. However, the failure -of struduration theory tions of the causes of strikes are often highly contentious. Comparative analysis distinctive programme of empirical research in terms of testable hypotheses has compounds inaccuracies because different national statistics are biased in different been an issue of critical debate. The substantlve problem is that strikes are not necessarily good indicators of workers' attitudes: strike activity also depends on contextual factors such as the to produce a SEE ALSO: action theory; actor-network theory; embodiment; time-spacedistantiation.
Stratification systems can be more or less rlgid. There is, for example1 a fair degree of social mobility between social classes in contemporary society. In other societies, those based on CASTE, for example, the boundaries between strata are rigid and impermeable and there are well-developed mechanisms whereby higher strata can exclude lower, work of industrial relations.
Workplace militancy may not even show up in strike data if labour is powerful and managements give way without strikes. At its most general levef, it simply Strauss , Anselm L. His first major study was Social Psychology With B.
Becker et al. He employed these perspectives to study ldentlty in Mirrors and Masks and the opposite qualities, called binary oppositions, such as sweet and sour, or red and and was a founder of SYMsouc JNTE. He also made a fundamental of death, in Awarene55 qf cultural forms, especially myths, typically take the form of the combination of green.
Analysis of myths, and by extension of literary texts, takes the form of contribution, with K G. Glaser, to the sodological study showing what binary oppositions are manifested.
SO: Chicago School; dramah. Potentially the term can be used for any social group. A multiplicity of little specialization or division of labour. The subsistence economy is regarded as subcultures exists in modern society, each one of which has its own system of values typical of pre-capitalism or peripheral regions where capitalism has not penetrated. The or slang and a feeling of belonging and identity.
For described groups of marijuana users who formed a subculture, and sell on the market. Similarly, studies of exponents of youth cultures, such as punks or skinheads, show how the group is united by dress, attitudes and tastes in opposition to the dominant culture. Hall and T. In some versions, this is described as 'privatized', families nality or social position.
Membership of such subcultures gives a sense of identity being inward-looking, separated from wider family and neighbours and manifesting and some compensation for 'failure' in conventional society.
Durkheim's theory that suicide rates and different types of social context are related, in particular that postmodemity; youth culh1re. The subject implies agency, than individual acts and motives; 2 a positivistic approach that relates suicide action and authorship, but also subjection.
In contemporary Marxism, the function of were simpler than in towns. Both perspectives thus deny the creative agency of human subjects. Outside the Durkheimian tradition, 'ecological' in structuralism that subjectivity is a mode of awareness which is historically specific accounts such as R. Cavan's also focus on social disorganization, which is to modern Western culture. Subjectivity and self-consciousness are, The devastating criticisms of sociological theories made by j. Douglas in these approaches, no longer seen as innate, a part of human nature, but as socially indicate that existing accounts lack foundation and are misguided.
He shows that constructed in different forms in different societies. READING: Benoist are highly inaccurate and systematically biased in ways that rural areas; highly integrated groups are more likely than poorly integrated ones to conceal suicides by ensuring that other causes of death are recorded; the medical competence of those who categorize deaths for official purposes varies and may be assumed to be greater as societies modernize and grow more complex.
Existing theories are also misguided, because super. In Dougla! The purpose of surveying may be description or causal analysis. Let us say the worker has a working day of ten hours. In a portion of this, say eight hours, the worker will produce goods of a value equal to his costs of subsistence.
SEE A ts o: labour power; Marxist sociology. Those in power need to gather Information on subordinates, issue commands and then ensure that the commands have been carried out. While pre-industrial states do not have particularly efficient means of surveilw lanc:e, and depend more on dlrect physical coercion, modern states rely more on surveillance, involving very good information systems, which are often located in bureaucracies.
This surveillance system provides a precise kind of supervision which effectively prevents infractions of rn1es. The growth of survcilJance systems has prompted rome writers, G. Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Fonr I When the populations are small, sociological surveys may cover ALSO: audit society; 1flt1Jority; bttremtcracy; commurJity punishment; govemw mentality; panopticism; rights.
Sociologists are often less interested in description as such than in charting relationships between variables and the analysis of causation. This interest infh. Toennies identified three separate branches of sociology: pure or theoretical, applied and empirical.
Although they are ideal types, Toennies wanted to use his pair of concepts to describe the historical transformation of Germany from a rural to an indust:r:lal society.
He was influenced by the philosophy of A. Schopenhauer It86o and F. Nietzsche II9CXJ , from whom he adopted the notion of 'the wUJ to life', Toennies argued that :rocial relations are the products of human will; he identified two types of wilL Natural will Wesenwille is the expression of instinctual needs, habit; conviction or inclination.
Whereas natural wm is organic and real, rational Will is conceptual and artificial. ALSO: ideal type; rural-urban continuum; teleology; urban way of life. He visited the United States in z to examine the prison system. His views on the negative psychological effects of solitary confinement and the problems of comparative C! His primaty focus ln the firs:t part was the principle of t::QUA L! Although he admired the American system, he argued that the universal franchise would produce a tyranny of the majority, which would obliterate hierarchy, local differences and regionalism.
He thought that in a democracy voluntary associations would be crucial as a counter-weight to the tyranny of the majority. The absence of a violent revolution i n England was a consequence o f the fact that t h e English class system was relatively open and fluid, without a Iigid system of privilege.
Reflecting on the Revolution of 1. This view provided the basis of structu r alist interpretations in which totemism as a mode of dasslfication provides an anal ysis of the structure of human thought. While the content of traditions is highly variable, it typically refers to some elements of culture regarded as part of t he common inheritance of a social group.
The concept is importan t in sociology in making a s, perhaps reflecting USA indicates that the work-centred women After the death of the fourth caliph, AU, in 66x, the Muslim community split into Sunnls, the majority group, and the Shi'ites, who over time became dominant in Persia modern-2 until the soul achieves liberation in brohman. The conditions of rebirth are determined by various acts kanna performed in previous lives.
A Punfabi religious movement whose fonnative periOd was r. Following a religious conversion, Guru Nanak became a religious teacher travelnng widely throughout India and establishing a community.
The Punjab term for disciple is sikh. The tenth leader, Gobind Singh. To prevent disputes over his succession, the tenth Guru invested his charismatic powers in the community itself the Khalsa Panth. Sikhism acquired a distinctive egalitarian ethos, partly through the incorporation of an agrarian militant group from northern India theJats in the sixteenth century, who were opposed to the hierarchical Hindu traditions of Brahmanism.
The other feature of Sikhism is that it was shaped by a profound mmtary and cultural struggle against Islam of the Mughal or Timurl Empire in tbe eighteenth century. Dottomore and R. Barker and S. Gor8 Habermas, J. Bechhofer, F. Goode, E. Sciences deal with ideas, thoughts, and concepts, and these must be expressed in words. Fully revised and up to date, the third edition includes biographies of key figures, such as Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, and entries on topics ranging from environmental determinism to orientalism.
This new edition of Allan G. Johnson's one-volume sociology dictionary includes 75 new entries, as well as an expanded biographical section, extensive revisions and updates, and a more thorough cross-referencing. Cross references abound, while illustrations and tables further aid understanding and the A-Z format makes the book exceptionally easy to use"--Basado en el registro de Online Computer Library Center.
This dictionary provides not only one-line definitions but also entries that discuss the issues involved in, and alternative approaches to, the concepts, theories and writings of sociology. For some this work will be a textbook, for others an indispensable sourcebook of sociological concepts, and for most a way of opening our eyes to new dimensions in our understanding of the great ideas and theories of sociology.
In the Dictionary of Sociology , exceptional emphasis is laid upon the latter task, because of the conditions already mentioned.
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